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Title : The Myth Of Taxation Reform
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The Myth Of Taxation Reform

The below originally appeared at World Market Perspective 18, no. xi (November 1985) via Mises.org and remains especially relevant today every bit President Trump together with the Republicans inward Congress endeavour to launch the revenue enhancement reform hustle i time again. -RW

By Murray Rothbard

Everyone volition handgrip that the American revenue enhancement organisation is a mess. Taxes are far besides high, together with the patchwork organisation is so complicated that fifty-fifty IRS officials don’t understand it. Hence the evident demand for some sort of dramatic, fifty-fifty drastic, reform. As oft happens, a grouping of dedicated together with determined reformers has arisen to satisfy that need. But before nosotros encompass this novel gospel, nosotros should brain the old saying almost jumping from the frying pan into the fire, together with also holler upwards the alert of the swell H.L. Mencken, who defined “reform” as

“Mainly a conspiracy of prehensile charlatans to mulct the American taxpayer.” And nosotros should also deport inward brain that all acts of government, all the same wor­thy they may seem, receive got a way of winding upwards solving no problems together with entirely making matters worse.

Working inside electrical flow revenue enhancement realities, the reformers’ plans are varied together with alter nearly daily, every bit they run across conflicting political pressures. But whether they live Kemp-Kasten, Bradley-Gephardt, the Treasury conception of fall, 1984 (Regan, or Reagan I), or the terminal Reagan conception of spring, 1985 (Reagan II), in that location is i mutual together with seemingly unproblematic goal: that every mortal or grouping should pay the same proportional revenue enhancement on their cyberspace income, together with that all deductions, exemptions, together with shelters live abolished inward the bring upwards of this uniform proportional revenue enhancement (a “flat revenue enhancement alongside no exemptions”).

The apartment revenue enhancement reformers receive got much inward mutual alongside militant ide­ologues that nosotros receive got move all besides familiar alongside inward the twentieth century. In the starting fourth dimension place, they are egalitarians inward this case, assuming it to live sinful or at to the lowest degree grossly “unfair” for whatever mortal or grouping to escape the scythe of the swell uniform tax. Second, together with along alongside this egalitarianism, they assume inward curt together with lordly fashion that they lonely correspond together with embody the “general interest,” together with that all objections to a uniform apartment revenue enhancement may live apace dismissed every bit the self-interested croakings of the “special interests.” It doesn’t seem to affair if the “special interests” encompass most of the American populace; they must live unceremoniously swept aside to accomplish the apartment revenue enhancement paradise. The fact that most of the impetus for this together with other reforms comes from academic economists puts the icing on the apartment revenue enhancement cake. Academic idealists receive got ever been accustomed to sweeping aside everyone else’s interests together with concerns every bit petty together with “special,” piece they talk automatically for the larger interests of mankind. At best, the reformers cavalierly overlook the enormous amount of harm together with hurting they volition inflict inward the course of written report of their grandiose reform.

One example: the apartment revenue enhancement would impose an enormous amount of harm together with harm on every American homeowner. In their wisdom, the apartment taxers receive got decided that deduction of involvement payments on your mortgage is a “subsidy” granted past times the revenue enhancement system, together with that your truthful cyberspace income would permit no such deduction. They receive got also concluded that the unwitting homeowner also enjoys some other “subsidy” from the government: failure to revenue enhancement his “imputed rent”; that is, the amount that he would receive got had to pay inward rent if he had been renting the business solid instead of owning it. One of the many prob­lems alongside the latter proposal is that the misfortunate homeowner is never able to pay his “imputed” taxes; no, his taxes would receive got to live paid inward mutual frigidness cash, fifty-fifty though his income is “psychic” together with non earned inward money. But nosotros press on. H5N1 tertiary torso blow to the homeowner would live the apartment taxer’s insistence on eliminating federal revenue enhancement deductions for province together with local taxes, most of which are belongings taxes on one’s home. Thus, nosotros receive got a three-fold revenue enhancement increment inflicted on the home­owner, together with the effect of this one-two-three punch would live a perma­nent lowering of the marketplace value of one’s home, which consists of the acquaint value of expected time to come returns from the house.

These are but a few of the many grave consequences together with dam­ages that would flow from the reformers’ measures. But the reform­ers literally exercise non care; no pains (almost invariably suffered past times others) must live permitted to block or delay the speedy achievement of their Utopia. Any alterations are entirely grudging concessions to the vehement resistance of the “special interests” to the advent of the apartment taxers’ New Jerusalem. Thus, the Regan conception of fall, 1984 (Reagan I), proposed to increment drastically the upper-case missive of the alphabet gains tax, toward the ideal of raising it to the precise degree of the income tax, together with also suggested a precipitous lowering of crude depletion allowances. Great resis­tance was offered to the conception past times risky venture capitalists, who would live especially crushed past times a high upper-case missive of the alphabet gains tax, together with past times the similarly damaged crude interests, ever considered sinister inward the pop imagination. As a result, the reformers were forced to aban­don these ii aspects of their Grand Plan inward Reagan II. But inward the long run, these forced retreats are non important; their goal—a uni­form across-the-board apartment tax—always remains the same.

But why is this conception so grand? So vitally of import that our hurting together with hardships should live treated every bit nothing? Here the reformers offering piddling argument. Basically, their reasons boil downwards to two: their revenue enhancement organisation would live unproblematic (you could calculate your revenue enhancement on a post­card), together with higher upwards all, it would live fair.

The Argument for Simplicity

Making out your taxes, the reformers claim, would live simplicity itself. No to a greater extent than back-breaking piece of work trying to figure out what’s going on, no to a greater extent than hiring revenue enhancement lawyers or accountants. But the sugariness sim­plicity of the declaration tin live disposed of real quickly. In the starting fourth dimension place, anyone who wants simplicity tin receive got it now, past times using the small E-Z form, together with two-thirds of Americans exercise so at the acquaint time. So together with so the interrogation to inquire is: why exercise one-third of us pick out complexity past times spending many painful hours over the complex form, together with why exercise nosotros hire expensive lawyers together with accountants to aid us? Surely, non because nosotros honey complexity together with expense for their ain sakes, but because nosotros believe that in that location are things inward life worse than complexity, together with i of them is paying to a greater extent than taxes! We are willing to endure some complexity inward social club to lower some of our monstrous revenue enhancement burden. And past times eliminat­ing our deductions, exemptions, shelters, together with so on, the reformers are imposing compulsory simplicity against our wishes. They are genuinely what the swell nineteenth century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt said of the statist intellectuals of his day, “terrible simplifiers.”

But the joke is on us, for the reformers’ organisation would actually inward no way live simple. We would soundless receive got to move through a complex together with murky maze. For the commutation to the apartment taxers is that the uniform proportionate revenue enhancement is to live levied on all cyberspace income. But what is cyberspace income? The answers are far from simple, together with goodness arguments tin live flora on either side. The interesting together with crucial fact is that, on each of these arguments, the apartment taxers invariably come upwards downwards against the harried taxpayer, together with inward favor of bringing ever to a greater extent than of our income together with assets into the greedy maw of the taxing Leviathan State.

Thus, are “capital gains” income? The reformers say yes, together with telephone telephone for taxing it to the same extent every bit ordinary income. Western Europe has non gone downwards the economical drain partly because its upper-case missive of the alphabet gains taxes receive got ever been far lower than its income taxes, but this fact does non together with cannot count inward the harsh calculus of our reformers. Should upper-case missive of the alphabet gains live taxed every bit they accrue on our books or entirely every bit they are realized inward cash? Once again, the reformers opt for accrual, grabbing our assets at an before date, together with heedless of our employment of paying taxes inward coin piece our “gains” receive got entirely accrued inward our psyche or on paper. Are the losses inward our revenue enhancement shelters phony, or should they live treated every bit existent losses to write off our income? The reformers insist that they are phony, together with that hence they must live disregarded when our taxes are estimated. But who is to say so? Who is to say that if I purchase a Equus caballus farm inward Virginia, together with endure losses, that these are losses I welcome inward social club to trim back my taxes? Who is equipped to aspect into my pump together with brain together with honour out if these losses are “genuine” or not? And since when has the IRS acquired occult powers, along alongside the relaxation of its totalitarian armamentarium?

And what almost the cherished American establishment of the three­martini lunch? Reformers from Carter to Reagan receive got tried to rhythm that lunch, together with to claim that these are non genuine or worthy business organisation expenses. Net income is arrived at past times deducting costs from gross income. But is the three-martini tiffin a “genuine” cost of business, or is it a sneaky way of earning income that is non bailiwick to tax? Who knows? Who knows how much genuine business, if any, is conducted at such lunches? Once again, the reformers know! And they know that such deductions tin live swept away.

And in that location is the employment of the corporation. Corporations are entities. Should their income live taxed at the same charge per unit of measurement every bit personal income? Economists receive got come upwards to recognize that in that location is no living thing called a corporation. H5N1 corporate income revenue enhancement is a double revenue enhancement upon stockholders, starting fourth dimension every bit a “corporation,” together with side past times side upon their personal income. But piece economists receive got been increasingly call­ing for abolition of the corporate tax, the reformers receive got inward their wisdom decided that since all entities’ income must live taxed uni­formly, the corporate income revenue enhancement must live included together with fifty-fifty raised if necessary to live taxed at the same rate.

None of these arguments is simple, but it’s instructive that inward each together with every case, the reformers receive got come upwards downwards fiercely on the side of including all these incomes or assets inward the taxation category. Their bias inward favor of tax, tax, together with to a greater extent than revenue enhancement should live clear past times now.

The Argument for Fairness

The major declaration of the apartment taxers is that it is “fairness” that demands a swift forced march toward their ideal. “Fairness” is worth almost whatever cost. But it is foreign that this ethical declaration comes from a profession (academic economists) who receive got made a career of loudly proclaiming that all of their doctrines are “value-free sci­ence” that receive got cipher to exercise alongside ethics. So when did they move goodness ethicists? Indeed, the fairness declaration is mostly together with blithely assumed to live true, afterwards which the reformers tin gleefully denounce every resister to higher or broader taxes every bit embodiments of sinister “special” interests.

One declaration holds that fairness demands that everyone pay his or her equal portion of the “services” of government. Let us fix aside for a 2nd the for sure of import betoken that these “services” are oft dubious, are inordinately expensive, together with sometimes hateful that the taxpayer is forced to pay for his ain surveillance together with oppression. Since when does “fairness” demand that everyone pay the same proportion of his income for a goodness or service? Mixed inward alongside the declaration for fairness is the persuasion that authorities should exercise cipher to penalize i manufacture or occupation, or subsidize another. This neutral-to-the-market declaration puts the apartment taxers inward the guise of militant adherents of costless enterprise. This sounds admirable, but why does it imply that every­one should pay the same proportion of his income? When David Rockefeller together with I purchase a loaf of Wonder Bread at the supermarket, each of us pays the same price; no i is in that location to inspect our annual incomes together with levy a proportionate fine. No i forces Rockefeller to pay $1,000 for a loaf of Wonder Bread, just because his income is a G times that of the side past times side man. The costless marketplace tends toward uniform together with equal pricing for each product; i cost for everyone, whatever that person’s race, creed, class, color, or income. Why should it all of a abrupt live unlike for taxes? In short, a placidity but highly of import alter has hither been made inward the concept of “equal,” from equal together with uniform cost for all on the costless market, to equal proportion to income inward the hands of the apartment taxers.

“Subsidy” True together with False

At the pump of the fairness together with neutral-to-the-market assumptions of the apartment taxers is their limited want to eliminate subsidies, which are assumed to live both evil together with non-neutral to the costless market. The prob­lem hither is an equivocation on the term “subsidy.” It’s certainly truthful that our revenue enhancement together with budget organisation is riddled alongside subsidies, properly defined every bit taxing i grouping of people to describe the pockets of another, or robbing Peter to pay Paul. If you lot or I are taxed to subsidize tobacco growers, or highway builders, or contractors, or welfare recipients, together with so these are indeed subsidies, cases where productive people are beingness robbed past times the authorities to back upwards groups who function, inward effect, every bit parasites upon the producers. These are subsidies that should live elimi­nated forthwith. But what about, say, deductions for payment of involvement on mortgages, revenue enhancement credits for investment, or deductions for payment of province together with local taxes? In what feel are they “subsidies”? Instead, what is actually happening hither is that some people—homeowners, investors, or province together with local taxpayers—are graciously allowed past times the authorities to hold to a greater extent than of their ain coin than they would receive got otherwise. I submit that beingness allowed to hold to a greater extent than of your hard-earned coin is non a subsidy inward whatever truthful sense; it simply agency that you lot are beingness fleeced less intensely than you lot would receive got been. If a robber assaults you lot on the highway, together with is almost to run off alongside all of your funds, together with you lot persuade him to allow you lot hold some autobus fare, is he “subsidizing” you? Surely not. Being allowed to hold your ain coin tin scarcely live called a subsidy.

We are at i time able to consider through ii real unlike senses of the concept of “special interest.” It is all besides truthful that the tobacco planter or the highway contractor who eagerly demands authorities funds are special interests aggressively dedicated to fleecing the taxpayer. But the investor, or the homeowner, or the venture capitalist, or whatever, who lobbies to live able to hold ‘more of his ain coin is a “special interest” inward a real unlike sense. They are resisters properly dedicated to defending their ain rights together with assets against authorities assault. “Special” they mightiness be, but they are, whether they know it or not, engaged inward the noble effort of defending the rights together with the freedoms of all of us against fix on together with depredation.

By focusing on defenders of their belongings together with rights every bit alleged subsidy-seekers, the apartment taxers are engaging inward a strategy of “divide together with conquer.” The reformers receive got taken a growing displace of rebellion, resentment, together with telephone telephone for lower taxes together with split the taxpayer forces past times encouraging i fix of us to seek out together with persecute the other set. The apartment taxers receive got managed to shift the focus of give-and-take from “lower taxes for all” to the proposition: “If you lot want your taxes to live lower, seek out together with confiscate the assets of those bad people whose taxes are ‘unfairly’ low.” The focus becomes raising the other guy’s taxes instead of lowering yours together with everyone else’s. This clever ploy of the high taxers unfortunately seems to live working.

The apartment taxers similar to proclaim their conception to live “revenue-neutral,” that is, the overall revenue enhancement burden volition non change. The lowering of some taxes on upper income groups, then, must live offset past times “broadening the base,” or past times extending the revenue enhancement burden to to a greater extent than people together with sources of income. But who is to guarantee that i time the base of operations is broadened, together with to a greater extent than income sources are brought nether government’s sway, it volition non follow its natural proclivities together with i time once again heighten taxes for everyone?

What Is a Loophole?

It is ironic that the slogan “close the loopholes,” which used to live a hallmark of left-liberalism, has at i time been adopted past times the Reagan direction together with past times the apartment taxers. The swell free-market economist Ludwig von Mises i time rose upwards inward a conference on taxation that devoted much unloosen energy to the closing of revenue enhancement loopholes, together with asked the crucial question: “What is a loophole?” He answered that the as­sumption of the loophole theorists seemed to live that all of every­one’s income actually belongs to the government, together with that if the authorities fails to revenue enhancement all of it away, it is thereby leaving a “loop­hole” that must live closed. The same accuse applies to the deduc­tions, exemptions, credits, together with all the other loopholes out of a apartment revenue enhancement so condemned past times our revenue enhancement reformers.

Let us at i time consider the vexed interrogation of ending deductibility of province together with local taxes—a vital betoken to our reformers—because ending deductibility volition furnish a huge bonanza for our federal revenue enhancement collectors. The apartment taxers combat that past times allowing deductions, the citizens of low-tax cities together with states are “subsidizing” the citizens of high-tax states, together with that an halt to deductions volition set all regions on a plane of fairness together with uniformity. Governor Mario Cuomo, on behalf of the notoriously tax-oppressed citizens of New York, ac­cepted the accuse of subsidy, together with and so eloquently threw it dorsum to the critics of New York, asking, inward effect, “What’s incorrect alongside a sub­sidy? Are you lot against the citizens of New York subsidizing tobacco farmers inward North Carolina, or subsidizing highway contractors inward Iowa?” As a rare consistent supporter of left-liberalism, Cuomo was able to disclose the hypocrisy of those whose attacks on subsidies habitually endure from a convenient double (or triple) standard. Be­ing a left-liberal, Cuomo was non equipped to move i pace fur­ther—to pace exterior the mammoth subsidy organisation together with inquire the crucial question: Are Iowans actually subsidizing New Yorkers nether deductibility? Or are the oppressed together with cruelly taxed New Yorkers beingness spared from beingness doubly taxed on their ain income? The average New Yorker is non responsible for his high taxation; he suffers unwillingly nether the highest sales, income, together with belongings taxes inward the country. Why should he endure to a greater extent than than the average Iowan? What is so “fair” almost that?

The Reagan direction supporters of ending deductibility offering a pragmatic or strategic declaration inward reply. If you lot revenue enhancement New Yorkers higher upwards past times eliminating deductions, together with so they volition ascent upwards together with curl dorsum New York province together with metropolis taxes to the lower Iowan level. This is the old the-worse-the-better declaration that unfortunately, inward improver to beingness strategic rather than moral, never seems to work. One of the principal arguments for bringing inward the income revenue enhancement inward the early on twentieth century was that now, inward contrast to the indirect tariff, everyone would straight experience such a tax, together with hence the public would ascent upwards to hold taxes low. Obviously it didn’t piece of work that way. Instead, nosotros kept together with increased tariffs, together with nosotros exploited a novel revenue enhancement source together with raised it to gigantic together with crippling proportions.

“Fairness”: Equal Slavery

One dramatic way of looking at our revenue enhancement organisation inward relation to the interrogation of subsidy or fairness is to assume for a 2nd that this is 1850, together with that the interrogation arises inward the North every bit to what should live done alongside slaves who had managed to escape from the South. Let us assume that both sides of a growing debate are ardently inward favor of liberty together with are opposed to slavery. Group H5N1 hails the slaves’ escape together with advocates setting them free. But Group B argues every bit follows:

We are, of course, just every bit ardent a champion of slave liberty every bit the people of Group A. But nosotros believe it is unfair for i grouping of slaves to escape, piece the residue of their brothers together with sisters rest inward slavery. Therefore, nosotros handgrip that these escapees should live shipped dorsum into slavery until such fourth dimension every bit all the slaves tin live freed together together with simultaneously.

What would nosotros think of such an argument? To telephone telephone it specious would live a kindly understatement. But I submit that believers inward the costless marketplace are arguing inward exactly the same way when they say that all taxes must live uniform, together with that all specific revenue enhancement deductions or exemp­tions must live canceled until such fourth dimension every bit everyone’s taxes tin live reduced uniformly. In both cases, the egalitarians are arguing non for equal liberty but for equal slavery or equal robbery inward the bring upwards of “fairness.” In both cases, the rebuttal holds that the enslavement or plunder of i grouping tin inward no way justify the enslavement or plunder of another, live it inward the bring upwards of fairness, equity, or whatever.

The Argument for Misallocation of Resources

The most sophisticated declaration of the apartment revenue enhancement reformers is that deduc­tions, exemptions, together with loopholes distort the allotment of resources from what it would live on the costless market, together with hence should live abolished. This is an integral component of the neutrality-to-the-market argument, together with is especially insidious, because it makes the reform­ers appear to live knowledgeable together with dedicated adherents of the costless market. Let us take, for example, ii credits or deductions: an investment revenue enhancement credit, together with an unloosen energy credit. The reformers combat that the final result of the “subsidy” of revenue enhancement credits is that to a greater extent than resources are at i time going into investment or energy, together with less are going into other areas, than would on the costless market, together with that hence these credits should live eliminated.

It is truthful that to a greater extent than resources are at i time going into investment, energy, together with a slew of other areas, than would receive got inward a purely costless marketplace system. But the reformers leave of absence out a crucial point: what is the alternative? If investment, energy, or other credits or deductions are abolished, resources volition non automatically move into to a greater extent than produc­tive areas; instead, they move into government, via higher taxes. In short, the alternatives to unloosen energy credits are non only Energy or All Other Consumption together with Investment. They are threefold: Energy, Other Forms of Expenditure, together with Government. And a higher revenue enhancement volition simply live wasted, thrown downwards the rathole of unproductive together with profligate authorities spending. In short, in that location is no waste—no misallocation—like government; anything else would live an im­provement.

The Way Out of the Mess

The policy conclusions that flow from our analysis are diametrically opposed to those of the apartment taxers. In looking at the history of reform together with at the arguments of the apartment taxers, i tin almost empathize alongside Richard L. Doernberg, professor of police at Emory University, who throws upwards his hands together with concludes that “We receive got a lousy system; let’s leave of absence it lonely or it volition larn worse.” Doernberg urges that the electrical flow revenue enhancement code, every bit bad every bit it is, should rest exactly the way it is forever, so that at to the lowest degree people volition know the score together with live able to conception around its provisions.

But nosotros tin exercise amend than that. We receive got to aspect differently at taxation. We receive got to halt looking at taxes every bit a mighty organisation for achieving social goals, which only needs to live made “fair” together with rational inward social club to usher inward Utopia. We receive got to start looking at taxation every bit a vast organisation of robbery together with oppression, past times which some people are enabled to alive coercively together with parasitically at the expense of others. We must realize that from the betoken of persuasion of jurist or of economical prosperity, the less people are taxed, the better. That is why nosotros should rejoice at every novel loophole, novel credit, novel manifestation of the “underground” economy. The Soviet Union tin hit or piece of work entirely to the extent that individuals are able to avoid the myriad of controls, taxes, together with regulations. The same is truthful of most Third World countries, together with the same is increasingly truthful of us. Every economical activeness that escapes taxes together with controls is non entirely a blow for liberty together with belongings rights; it is also i to a greater extent than instance of a costless flow of productive unloosen energy getting out from nether parasitic repression.

That is why nosotros should welcome every novel loophole, shelter, credit, or exemption, together with work, non to unopen them downwards but to expand them to include everyone else, including ourselves.

If, then, the measure for proper reform is to lower whatever together with all taxes every bit much every bit possible, how mightiness authorities services live supplied? To reply nosotros must receive got a real difficult aspect at authorities services. Are they “services,” or are they embodiments of repression? Or are they “services,” at best, that no i actually wants? And if they are genuine services, wouldn’t they live supplied to a greater extent than efficiently, every bit good every bit voluntarily, past times private enterprise? And if our friends the revenue enhancement reformers are so all-fired concerned almost the costless market, shouldn’t they reply this question: Why non set your emphasis on privatizing together with thereby drastically lowering/eliminating authorities services? Wouldn’t that live actually neutral to, together with consistent with, the costless market? How exercise nosotros explicate the fact that if nosotros move dorsum to the before years of our nation, the degree of authorities spending together with taxa­tion—even adjusted for inflation together with population growth—was enor­mously less, on every degree of jurisdiction, than it is today? And yet the Republic survived, together with fifty-fifty flourished.

We must, inward short, larn past times the revenue enhancement reformers’ favorite ploy of revenue neutrality. Why must total revenue rest the same? In­stead, it should live lowered drastically, together with every bit much every bit possible.

We at i time render to the old interrogation of “fairness”: if in that location are whatever taxes or authorities spending left afterwards our drastic cuts, how should the remaining taxes live levied? Here nosotros reopen the betoken that fairness is the closest possible approximation to neutrality toward the costless market. One method would live user fees, so that entirely direct users would pay for a service together with in that location would live no extra coercion on non-users. For the rest, nosotros should aspect at the free-market organisation of i cost for a goodness or service. We mightiness together with so suggest a organisation non of equal proportional income tax, but of equal tax, period. This is the age-old organisation of the “head tax,” inward which every citizen pays an equal amount each twelvemonth to the government, inward payment for whatever services may receive got been conferred upon him from governments’ existence during that year. The abolition of the income revenue enhancement would hateful the halt of snooping together with surveillance past times the IRS every bit good every bit the elimination of vast economical distortions together with oppression caused past times the system; the halt of sales together with belongings taxes would also live a swell boon to the liberty together with prosperity of Americans.

We would together with so together with entirely together with so receive got a revenue enhancement organisation that truly, together with at long last, fulfilled the proclaimed goals of our apartment revenue enhancement reformers. For hither would live a organisation that would live genuinely simple, genuinely fair, together with genuinely neutral to the costless market. Short of that goal, nosotros could settle temporarily for erstwhile Congressman Ron Paul’s (R-TX) inter­esting variant of the apartment revenue enhancement proposal: reducing all income revenue enhancement rates to 10 percent, piece at the same fourth dimension keeping all existing deductions, credits, together with exemptions. The regulation should live clear: to back upwards all reductions inward taxes, whether they live past times lower rates or widening of exemption together with deductions; together with to oppose all charge per unit of measurement increases or ex­emption decreases. In short, to seek inward every instance to take away the blight of taxation every bit much every bit possible. Here is i reform, at least, that could non autumn nether Mencken’s Definition of a plot to hurt the American taxpayer.

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